Chapter 18 - Human Performance in a Global Economy

George is an American salesperson working for a multinational corporation in Spain. He had expressed to his Spanish colleagues an interest in attending a bullfight, so when the first corrida (fight) of the season was announced, they invited him to accompany them. As the first bull was let out, George Jokingly asked the others, "So who's going to win? I'll put my money on the bull." His colleagues suddenly became silent. One of them remarked tartly, "You Americans know nothing." George did not know what he had said to offend them and felt very uncomfortable throughout the corrida.

Helen Connor had worked in a Japanese company marketing cameras for two years, and was so well respected that her employers frequently asked her to help new employees get settled within the company. Hideo Tanaka, a recent and young employee, was one of her assignees. When Hideo was informed at work that his lengthy personal project was not accepted, he said very little. That evening, however, Helen and Hideo happened to be at the same bar, and Hideo vigorously criticized his superiors. Hearing this, Helen decided that he was a very aggressive man and that
she would have difficulty working with him again in the future.

Chris and Margaret are two English teachers working in Barcelona, Spain. After living for a while near the center of the city, they decide they want to get to know their neighbors better, so they invite several couples over to their apartment for a drink or a meal. But no one accepts. Although they are thanked for their offer and they often exchange pleasantries on the stairs, the neighbors seem to have no interest in becoming better friends. Ironically, these same neighbors seem very social and often have large gatherings of their relatives in their apartments. However, Chris and Margaret are never invited. As a consequence, they begin to feel uneasy in any interactions with the neighbors, believing that they are not really liked or wanted in the building.

(adapted FROM brislin, cushner, cherrie, & yong, 7986

CHAPTER 18

'Why did George's colleagues become suddenly offended at his remark? Was Helen fair in her evaluation of Hideo? Why are Chris and Margaret finding it so difficult to make friends? As these three stories show, success in today's expanding global economy requires not only current knowledge of the marketplace, but also excellent communication skills, cultural awareness, sensitivity, conflict resolution abilities, and other important traits. In this chapter, we will address these and other components necessary for success at home, at work, and within the international community. Our three major topics of discussion are communication, persuasion, and dealing with conflict. Along the way, we will explore potential solutions to the specific problems of George, Helen, Chris, and Margaret.

COMMUNICATION

Communication is vital for our individual survival and for our national and international business success. As we've just seen, George's flippant remark to his Spanish colleagues about "betting on the bull" may have cost him friendships and important business contacts. Do you understand why his hosts were offended? According to Richard Brislin and his colleagues (1986, p. 67), for George's hosts, bullfighting is not a casual sporting event. It is a ceremony or drama in which the form, skill, and intensity of the performance are regarded as more important than the outcome. It the ritual is correctly performed, the bull's death is inevitable, but he will be allowed to exhibit dignity in this final act. George's concept of a "winner" is at best irrelevant, and at the worst, demeaning and disrespectful.

As you can see, communication in the global community poses unique challenges because of the difficulties of communicating in general, plus the problems associated with different languages, customs, values, and beliefs. In this section, we first examine the basic elements of communication, then nonverbal communication, and finally specific ways to improve your communication skills.

The Nature of Communication: What Is It? Why Is It Important?

Communication is an interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding messages (Dunn & Goodnight, 2003). It includes conversations between individuals, public speeches, small group discussions, e-mail messages, interoffice memos, knowing glances between friends or lovers, and so on.

Although many people think of communication as a simple one-way process, from the sender to the receiver, experience teaches us that it is often a complex, dynamic event, where miscommunication and misunderstandings can lead to disastrous results. For example, General Motors was very successful in marketing its automobile, the Nova, in the United States, but a dismal failure when they attempted to market it south of the border. Mexicans snickered and few bought the car. In Spanish, "No va" means "It doesn't go" or "It doesn't work." Ford also forgot that communication is a two-way process, and made a similar mistake when it tried to market its Pinto in Brazil. Discovering that "Pinto" is slang for "little penis" in Portugese, Ford quickly changed the car's name to Corcel, "the horse" (Archbold & Harmon, 2001).

The Communication Process

How can we prevent such communication disasters? As illustrated in Figure 18.1. there are seven important elements in all communication: senders and receivers, messages, encoding, decoding, channels, noise, and context. A brief discussion of these elements will help us understand others' communication and improve our own:

CONTEXT

Figure 18.1 The Communication

Process. Interpersonal communication generallv involves at least seven important elements: people (sender &

receiver),, messages, encoding, decoding, channels, noise, and context. In most two-way conversations, the
sender and receiver simultaneously send and receive messages (both verbal and nonverbal').

CONTEXT

Senders and Receivers: Each communication begins with a sender, who initiates the-' message, and a receiver, the person to whom the message is targeted. In an office setting, the employer (sender) may send a one-way interoffice memo to all staff members (receivers) reminding them of production goals or upcoming events, but in a typical two-way conversation, both people simultaneously serve as both senders and receivers.

Message: The message refers to ideas, information, or meaning sent back and forth between the sender and receiver. These messages can be personal ("I'm unhappy with your contributions to this project") and/or impersonal ("I'm unhappy with the budget for this project").

Encoding: Encoding is putting thoughts, ideas, or feelings into meaningful symbols that another person can understand (giving your supervisor a verbal or written summary of vour ideas to improve working conditions). Decoding: Decoding involves translating or interpreting the meaning of the message (the supervisor interprets your message as a valid suggestion and asks for more detail).

Channels The channel is the means by which the message is communicated. We have numerous possible communication channels, including the sensory channel through which the message reaches the receiver (we see the speaker, we hear their voice, possibly feel their physical touch, and so on), as well as various environmental channels (letters, reports, e-mail, phone calls, public speeches, television, news- papers, and so on).

Within a typical work setting, the channels of information typically flow in three different directions—downward, upward, and laterally (Figure 18.2). In addition, there are two types of organizational channels: formal and informal (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborne, 2003). Formal channels are established by the organization and follow the organizational structure, or "chain of command."

Informal channels consist of casual conversations, personal notes, and e-mail exchanged by workers.

As you may imagine, downward and forma] channels are important for conveying "official" information and organizational policies. But the lateral flow of information and informal channels are the backbone of any successful busines? Because they frequently skip levels in the hierarchy and help maintain open communication, thus avoiding the "red tape" that often limits formal communication.

Noise When communication is attempted, there often are intentional and unintentional stimuli that interfere with accurately expressing or understanding the message. Such interference is called noise, and it consists of internal noise (physical and psychological factors in the receiver, such as poor vision or hearing, bad mood, or distracting daydreams about the coming weekend), as well as external noise (envi-
ronmental factors, such as loud construction noise or visual blocks between the speaker and receiver).

Context The environmental conditions surrounding communication are referred to as the context. These include the physical settins (private or public, time of day. Seating arrangements, and so on), relationship issues (employer/employee, husband/wife, previous interactions, unresolved conflicts), psycholosical climate (current moods and attitudes, how we feel about ourselves and the sender or receiver), and sociocultural factors (previous socialization, ethnic backgrounds, cultural beliefs and
practices).

Given all the factors that affect even a simple communication, it is amazing that we communicate as well as we do. Any one of the seven elements can interfere with our messages, and even the best communicators often admit that the)' have to continuously work at communicating. But, with practice, anyone can improve his or her communication skills (Dunn & Goodnight, 2003). Being aware of these seven elements in the communication process is a good starting point.

APPLICATION

Think back to a recent difficult communication with an employer, friend, or lover. Answering the following questions may help clarify the problem:

• People Were you primarily the sender or the receiver? Do you think the problem was in the sending or in the receiving? Would the other person or people involved say the same thing?

• Messages What were ideas, information, and meaning conveyed in the message?
Which part of the message was most to blame for the communication problem?

• Encoding When you sent your messages, did you use the most appropriate words,
nonverbal intonations, facial expressions, and body language? Did the other person?

• Decoding When you received a message, did you interpret it differently from the way
it was intended by the sender? Did the other person misinterpret or poorly decode
your message?

• Channels Did you and the other person understand and use the most appropriate
channels for your communication? Noise Were there internal or external factors that interfered with your ability to communicate effectively?

• Context What possible background factors such as physical place or sociocultural factors contributed to your communication problem?

The Importance of Communication

Why do we communicate? What function does it serve? Beginning at birth, we are social being's who need others to survive. Through communication, our caregivers teach us, what and how to eat and drink, our role in the family, how to love, to be loved, how to express and control our emotions, and how to be a part of the larger society. As we grow older, we find that communication with others allows us to
create our identities, develop close social bonds with friends, lovers, spouses, and others, form societies, and accomplish a variety of tasks.

Throughout most of human history, communication has meant face-to-race "talk." However, the invention of writing allowed people to communicate with those who were far away; and the development of the printing press greatly multiplied the power of "long-distance communication." Today, our new technology allows a form and speed of communication that was unthinkable only a few years ago. Consider the

Internet: While remaining at home or work, we can instantaneously "travel" electronically around the world making friends with people we've never met and buy products from businesses around the globe.

For organizations in today's online world, keeping up with these changes and finding ways to stay connected with customers can be critical to their survival. Many American businesses have encountered significant problems in their online efforts to communicate with their employees and customers. In addition, the Internet requires an expensive infrastructure of personal computers, servers, routers, and ,
elaborate network of cables and other components. As a result, access is unevenly distributed around the globe (Figure 18.3).

Nonverbal Communication: Actions Often
Speak Louder than Words

After the United States mistakenly bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in 1999, President Clinton offered a lengthy apology on international television. Chinese officials were outraged, however, and refused to broadcast the tape. Why? In China and Japan, apologies are a serious matter. They require just the right words, precise tone, and appropriate clothing. Clinton appeared outdoors wearing a polo shirt.

As this example indicates, verbal communication is only part of the communication process. It's also important to consider the messages we communicate nonverbally. Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through means other than words. It includes numerous elements, such as eye contact, clothing, physical appearance, facial expressions, kinesics (gestures and body language), proxemics (the way people use space in communicating), and paralanguage (the pace,
pitch, and volume of speech). Simply stated, it is the act of communicating without using words.

Importance of Nonverbal Communication

W e all know that people communicate in ways other than speaking or writing. However, few people recognize the full importance of nonverbal signals. Imagine yourself an interviewer. Your first job applicant greets you with a big smile, full eye contact, firm handshake, and an erect, open posture. The second applicant doesn't smile, looks down, offers a weak handshake, and slouches. Who do you think you will hire? Research shows that in the average communication, more than half of the overall message and up to 90 percent of the emotional content is transmitted through the non-verbal dimension (Mehrabian, 1947, 1968, 1986). Researchers also have found that when the verbal and nonverbal dimensions don't match, we pay more attention to the nonverbal because we believe it more often tells us what someone is really thinking or feeling (Graham et al., 1991).

In Chapters 1, 8, and 12, we discussed several theories and concepts related to the importance of eye contact and facial expressions in communication. Therefore, in this section we will focus our discussion on kinesics, proxemics, and paralanguage.

Kinesics (Gestures and Body Language)

To get along or do business in another culture, it obviously is important to learn the appropriate kinesics (the gestures and body language) of that culture. Even if you are client in the verbal language of the culture, if you don't understand (or ignore) kinesics, you will miss a great deal of the meaning of the communication—while also running the risk of appearing foolish, ignorant, and offensive. For example, upon meeting, Japanese men bow, Arab men kiss, and American men shake hands or hug. Social class also affects nonverbal communication. For example, higher-status individuals generally do more touching. Presidents touch Vice-Presidents and employers touch employees, not the other way around.

Gestures also vary a great deal from one culture to the next. Making the "ring" gesture (forming a circle with your thumb and index finger) is commonly used in America to indicate, "Everything is good" or "OK." Unfortunately, if you use this same signal in Tunisia, you would be saying, "I'll kill you!" In Japan, this gesture is a symbol for a coin and it means you are asking for money or commenting on the cost of something. And in southern Italy it refers to a body part that is not mentioned in polite company (or in college textbooks). Similarly, if you're at the University of Texas sports teams, and use the "hook 'cm horns" sign (the pinky fingers are raised up, while the middle two are folded down), if you use that the same sign in Italy means, "Your spouse is unfaithful!"

Interestingly, there are a few nonverbal signals that appear to be universal. Shaking your head up and down generally means "yes," whereas shaking it back and forth means "no." Rhythmically tapping vour toes or fingers is a widespread gesture of impatience, and a closed fist with the thumb jerked downward is a generally accepted signal for "no good." (Axtell, 1998; Fkman, Fnesen, & Bear, 1984; Morris, 1994;Samovar & Porter, 1991).

How can I prevent miscommunications -with people from other cultures? To avoid offending others, and increase your chance of social and business success in other countries, you should study both the verbal and nonverbal languages of the countries you visit. In addition, when interacting within our own North American culture, there are a few general rules that you may not know that also will make you
a better nonverbal communicator within your hometown culture. For example, in Western societies frequent self-touching or scratching generally signifies nervousness (Harrigan et al., 1991). Also, when people lean toward you, it usually signals interest and a positive attitude, and leaning back with arms and legs in an "open" posture generally indicates a high level of relaxation (McKay, Davis, & Fanning, 1995).

Gender differences in nonverbal communication. In our North American culture, 'males are socialized toward little or no touching between men. But in certain situations, like sports, they are allowed to hug and be openly emotional.
Proxemics (Physical and Personal Space)

The second channel of nonverbal communication is proxemics, or physical and personal space, and it also plays an important role in effective communication. Study the three different office arrangements in Figure 18.4 (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Oshornc,2003). Can you see how the arrangement of the "boss's" chair versus the visitor's chaircommunicates three radically different messages?

In addition to physical space, important nonverbal messages also are communicated by personal space—how close people stand or sit when communicating. It you've traveled to other countries, you know that the amount of personal space people prefer varies from one culture to another. South Americans, for example, tend to stand closer to others than do people in North America. Anthropologist Edward Flail described an interaction he had with a man from South America who came to the
front of the class at the end of his lecture.

Figure 18.4 If rooms could talk." Note how the various furniture arrang-einents communicate
three different nonverbal messages. Compare this arrangement to your office, dorm room, or
hoine. What are you saying' to visitors hy the choice of your furniture placement? (Adapted
from Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Oshorn, 2003.)

"We started out facing each other, and as he talked I became dimly aware that lie was standing' a little too close, and that I was beginning to hack up. Fortunately, I was able to suppress my first impulse and remain stationary because there was nothing to communicate aggression in his behavior except the conversational distance. By experimenting, I was able to observe that as I moved away slightly, there was an associated shift in the pattern of interaction. lie had more trouble expressing himself. If I shifted
to where I felt comfortable (about twenty-one inches), he looked somewhat puzzled and hurt. ... Having ascertained that distance had a direct effect on his conversation, I stood my ground, letting him set the distance "(Hall, 1959, p. 43).

Based on experiences like this, Hall went on to study personal space among various cultures and determined that North Americans prefer four different "personal spaces" depending on the nature of the communication (Hall, 1969, 2001):

Intimate distance (touching to about 18 inches apart). This space is generally reserved for romantic partners, close family members, and intimate friends. Even then, we use this distance only in special situations like comforting, embracing, or cuddling. If others intrude into this space, we tend to become tense and try to increase our distance from them. (This is the distance the South American main-
tained when speaking with Hall.)

Personal distance (18 inches to about 4 feet). We use this space during conversations and interactions with friends and acquaintances. (This is the distance Hall would have preferred to stand.)

Social distance (4 to 12 feet). We prefer this distance when we are having formal conversations with supervisors, co-workers, subordinates, customers, or other people whom we do not know well.

Public distance (\ 2 feet and beyond). This distance is typically used for communication in formal lectures and speeches or large, formal business meetings.

As shown in the ex-change between Hall and his South American student, it is important to recognize these invisible zones for preferrred personal space and their cultural variations. Intruding too closely can cause others to feel pressured, intimidated, defensive, or generally uncomfortable, whereas standing too far away may make others wonder if we are angry with them or if they have done something-wrong. There is evidence that these personal space norms differ not only between cultures, but also between men and women, and children and adults (Baron & Bvrne, 2003; Drake, 2002; Kaya & F,rkip, 1999; Remlind, Jones, & Brinkman, 1991).

Paralanguage (The Way Words Are Spoken)

The third major element of nonverbal communication is the way words are spoken, or paralanguage, which includes the pace, pitch, and volume at which words are spoken, and the tone of voice and inflections used by the speaker. Research has shown that in an average verbal communication, only about 7 percent of the entire communication is contained in the words themselves, while approximately 38 percent is contained in the paralanguage (Mehrabian, 1968).

Think about how your friend or employer's subtle inflection, or tone of voice, affects how you perceive his or her messages. A subtle increase in pitch at the end of a sentence can imply a question, but it can also imply nervousness or insecurity. "I think everything is going to turn out okay, don't you?" Contrast this to a sharp drop in pitch along with an increase in volume and a firmer tone at the end of the same sentence. "I think everything is going to turn out okav, don't you!" Similarly, telling someone "That was really smart!" as a compliment involves different inflections and tone than saying, "That was really smart!" as a sarcastic comment. The words are the same, but the meanings are opposite. Only the paralanguage allows us to know which is which.

APPLICATION: Paralanguage is a powerful form of communication. You can improve your skills by experimenting with the volume of your speech (loud or soft), the pitch of your voice (high or low),
and the speed at which you speak. Try communicating five major emotions (sarcasm, anger, fear, surprise, and joy) while saying the following words: "I'm not leaving."

Now try the same experiment with a classmate, co-worker, or close friend. Be sure to close your eyes or turn your back while you or your partner are speaking. Try to guess what emotion they are expressing. You may be surprised how well this simple exercise improves your nonverbal communication
skills.

Male/Female Differences in Communication

Have you heard that men's and women's communication styles are so completely different that they are almost from two separate cultures or planets—Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus? This idea of "two cultures" appeals to us because of popular stereotypes and our own occasional difficulties communicating "across genders." Researchers have, in fact, identified several important gender differences in communication (Table 18.1). Keep in mind. however, that these differences are not characteristic of all men and women, or of all mixed-gender conversations. On the other hand, we need to research and understand these differences because they help explain and may prevent many misunderstandings.

Take, for example, the finding that men more often use speech to convey informatio, exert control, preserve independence, and enhance their status. Women use speech to achieve and share intimacy, promote closeness, and maintain relationships. If men tend to see conversations as a contest that they must win or lose and women use language as a way to "bond," it's easy to see why the two sexes might have communication problems. For example, a woman who sees language as a way to maintain relationships and create closeness and connection might call her partner at work to ask about his day or when he will be home so she can make plans. Because of gender differences in communication, the man might interpret her call as a challenge to his freedom and resist what he perceives as controlling behavior. To make matters worse, at home that night, in a one-on-one conversation, the same man may feel like relaxing. If he doesn't have information to convey or anyone to defend against, he sees little reason to talk. In comparison, the woman has spent her day in public having few opportunities to build closeness through language, and she looks forward to a quiet dinner and "real, relationship talk" with her mate.

Obviously, this scenario of male and female conversational styles exaggerates gender differences and overlooks individual situations. But we use this extreme example to demonstrate why the two sexes are often at cross-purposes when they talk. Researcher Deborah Tannen believes boys and girls learn different styles of communication from early childhood, and that these styles carry over into most of their adult social interactions (Chapter 11). In her book, You Just Don't Understand, Tannen stresses that the first steps in improving communication between men and women are accepting that there are differences in gender communication styles, realizing it is not a question of one style being right or wrong, and then working to understand the other gender's style of communication.

Following the publication of Tannen's research, a large number of investigations have been conducted regarding- gender differences in communication. These follow up studies have verified that some differences do exist, but they are, in general, relatively small. Moreover, such variations may reflect status and power more than gender (e.g., Canary c\ Dindm. 1WS: Koerner \- Fitz.patrick, 2002). This is good news. Given that good communication is essential in both our professional and personal lives, men
and women, with a little effort, should be able to engage in clear, accurate "one-culture" communication.

What Blocks Good Communication?

As you may recall from Figure 18.1, the term "noise" was used to refer to anything
that disrupts or interferes with communication. There are many types of noise, or barriers to communication, including the cultural and gender differences we discussed earlier. In this section we will focus on six specific physical, emotional, and psychological barriers that block communication goals: physical distractions, perceptual set, semantic problems, mixed messages, status differences, and communication overload.

Physical Distractions Sounds, music, background conversations, interruptions, temperature, or other factors in the physical environment often interfere with a communication or prevent it from occurring. even when they do not completely disrupt a communication, they can be so annoying that they change the entire tone of the interaction. Many physical distractions can be prevented or minimized with a lit-
tle forethought and advance preparation.

Perceptual Set As you discovered in Chapter 4, perceptual set is a readiness to perceive in a particular manner, based on expectations. In other words, we see what we want to sec. While "channel surfing," do vou ever quickly flip past the channels featuring the stars or politicians you don't like, and slow down to listen and appreciate the conversations and opinions of people you like? Perceptual set can have a profound impact on communication. Generally, once people have formed an opinion about someone or something, they attend to information that confirms their beliefs, and ignore, discount, or distort information that conflicts. Perceptual set often is linked to prejudicial attitudes such as racism, sexism, or ethnocentrism. In these cases, individuals discount or distort any information from others who are members of groups they dislike.

Perhaps the most dangerous aspect of perceptual set is that it often occurs automatically and unconsciously. People generally fail to recognize their own biases and misperceptions, and often wonder why others can't sec the "truth" as they sec it. This is one of the reasons that prejudice can be so difficult to eliminate. However, by understanding and monitoring our own perceptual sets, we can reduce its effect on our communication and interactions with others.

Semantics As discussed in Chapter 8, semantics is the choosing of words according to the meaning we want to convey. Problems arise when the choice of words fails to accurately convey the true intent of the speaker. Confusing people by using overly complex words to explain a simple concept is a typical semantic problem. The following "executive communication" is a case in point: "Consumer elements are continuing to stress the fundamental necessity of a stabilization of the price structure at a lower level than exists at the present time" (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn, 2003, p. 340).

A second semantic problem involves using emotionally charged words or insensitive language. Name-calling and racist or sexist statements not only insult and alienate the audience, but also encourage others to discount the message of the messenger. Words like "scum," "chick," or "old geezer" are offensive and disrespectful, and will certainly limit communication (Dunn & Croodnight, 2003).

A third semantic problem is the inappropriate use of technical jargon or slang. As a college student you undoubtedly understand terms like "GPA," "SAT," and "crashing classes," whereas your college professor understands "PTE," "flex-time," "accreditation," and "shared governance." Most groups and professions use technical lingo and slang because they provide a quick, shorthand way of communicating. However, these same terms used in the presence of "outsiders" can cause them to misunderstand or to feel excluded.

Mixed Messages When a persons words simultaneously convey two conflicting messages, or the words communicate the opposite of the person's body language or behavior, they are sending mixed messages. For example, in counseling it is not unusual to have clients say they are "fine," while they are looking downcast, with a tense, rigid, "closed" posture, and fidgeting constantly. Their nonverbal behavior
clearly indicates that they are anything but "fine." Someone who tells a romantic partner "I love only you" while openly flirting with someone else is sending a mixed message. A supervisor who tells an employee, "You're working too hard and I want you to cut back," hut then assigns the same employee to a new project that will require extensive overtime, also is sending a mixed message.

Why would people send mixed messages? This sometimes happens when individuals are conflicted themselves and unsure about their feelings or intentions. At other times they send mixed messages because they're saying what they believe they're supposed to say. Regardless of the cause, mixed messages can be very annoying—as well as confusing. The best response seems to be to confront them openly, in a polite and respectful manner—"I'm not clear about what you're telling me here. I'm getting two different messages, and I'm not sure which one to pay attention to. This is what
I'm hearing..."

Status Differences Free and open sharing of information is often disrupted due to difference in rank or status between the communicating parties. Employees often fear telling managers anything that might go against official policy, get them into trouble, or come back to "haunt" them on their annual evaluations. On the management side, the person with superior rank often spends more time conveying information and giving orders, than listening to subordinates. Such status barriers to communication often result in supervisors not getting an accurate view of what is going on in the workplace, and it may allow serious problems to go unresolved and get progressively worse. Therefore, it is important that businesses (and families) establish an atmosphere in which higher status individuals openly solicit and listen to.
information and assure subordinates that they can speak without fear of retribution.

Communication Overload: When individuals or businesses receive too much information to manage at one time, they may experience communication overload. From voicemail, "snail mail," and cell phones, to instant messaging and the Internet, we are all being overwhelmed with information. Trying to sort through which messages have high priority and which do not, and what information is relevant and what isn't, adds to the daily responsibilities and takes time away from other job duties. This type of overload also leads to increased stress and a longer workday as people try desperately to keep.

How Can We Promote Good Communication?

In addition to overcoming the previous six communication blocks, there are specific communication strategies that help us communicate better: audience analysis, active/empathic listening, and feedback.

Audience Analysis: Knowing your audience may be the most important key to effective communication. Just as General Motors and Ford overlooked the importance of their audience when naming their cars "Nova" and "Pinto," we often make similar mistakes in our homes and workplace. Picture this: A two year old is pulling and tugging' on her mother's dress as she's busily speaking on the phone, harried professor is rushing to finish as students are packing up to leave the class and a troubled employee is explaining to an angry, unreceptive boss why the newly installed (and very expensive) computer system is a total failure. Each of these three people is doing his or her best to communicate. But without audience cooperation their efforts are meaningless.

For effective communication, the audience must be "ready, willing, and able" tc listen. In addition, the communicator must pay attention to topics we've discussed; earlier (e.g., the sender and receiver, channel, noise, and context), making sure to optimize these for the current audience.

Active and Empathic Listening As you may recall from Chapter 15, active listening requires total attention to what another is saying. It involves listening for underlying meanings and key elements of the senders message, and recognition of both the verbal and nonverbal message. It also requires asking direct questions about the message itself, rather than passively and unquestioningly absorbing information. Simple questions like "Does this make sense?" "What evidence is there to support this
claim?" or "Is there another point of view on this issue?" can greatly improve your understanding of the sender's message. In addition to these internal questions, directly questioning the sender or asking for clarification can create a two-way form of communication, which as we discussed earlier is generally more effective.

In addition to active listening, which helps identify the underlying feelings or emotional content of someone's message, it's also important to understand the situation from the other person's point of view. This type of empathic listening requires focusing on the other person, being nonjudgmental, and responding sensitively to the sender's verbal and nonverbal communication (Dunn & Goodnight, 2003).

For example, suppose someone tells you about a series of personal problems and you respond by saying, "If I were in your situation, I'd feel totally overwhelmed. How do you feel about all this?" or "It sounds as it you feel overwhelmed because so many things have gone wrong lately. What's it like for you to be struggling with so much?" This type of response combines empathy with the questioning and full attention of active listening, and it opens the door to a deeper-level discussion of the person's situation.

Feedback As a communicator, you need to know if your recipient received and understood your intended message. Asking, "Is this clear?" "Do you need an example or more details?" or "What do you think?" invites feedback on your communication and the opportunity to clarify any misperceptions. As a recipient of a communication, you have an equal responsibility to carefully listen and ask for clarification it necessary.

APPLICATION: TRY THIS YOURSELF

Providing ongoing feedback between sender and receiver, employer and employee, and business and customers is one of the most important components for success in today's global economy. Would you like a few tips on giving feedback?

1. Be constructive, not destructive. Effective feedback helps people improve and build on their strengths, it should never weaken or demean them.

2. Focus on specific, changeable behaviors. Saying, "You're an idiot," after watching an employee mishandle a customer, may be an accurate reflection of how you feel, but it is not effective feedback. To improve, recipients need specific details and examples of what they're doing wrong. In addition, feedback should focus on changeable behaviors - not general traits or uncontrollable
situations. In this same situation, try saying, "When you make sarcastic comments to our customers, I get upset because it creates a negative impression that may hurt our business." Can you see how this feed-
back provides details about a specific behavior that can be changed? It also explains why you believe the behavior is a problem.

3. Focus on current behavior, not the past. Effective feedback emphasizes the "here and now." Criticizing someone about something that happened ages ago, and can no longer be changed, is almost
always inappropriate and destructive. However, if a current problem is an extension of continuation of previous behaviors, , you might mention this long-term pattern along with the present behaviors.

4. Avoid the four dirty words - "should, ought, always, and never" Imagine yourself as an employee who hears '"You should brush up on your people skills," "You ought to think before you speak,"
"You always let us down when we give you responsibility," or "You never come to work on time." Can you see why these four terms are considered "dirty words" by communication experts? The first two seem patronizing and demeaning, whereas "always" and "never" invite a defensive reaction.

5. Consider "set and setting." What is your recipient's current listening "set"? When someone is distracted, fatigued, or overwhelmed with work or personal crises, they cannot respond to even the best,
and most perfectly worded, feedback. Be sensitive to what a person can handle and what they're ready to hear. Also, be careful to clarify that you're "on the same team" and genuinely interested in helping them succeed.

"Setting" also is important. Giving feedback, especially negative feedback, in public can be embarrassing and force the receiver to go on the defensive to avoid public humiliation. As noted earlier, background, environmental conditions (known as context) are extremely important to good communication. When offering feedback, pick a private place that's conducive to good communication and assure the person that all feedback is confidential.

PERSUASION

Persuasion: Communication intended to change attitudes

The ultimate communication goal of the advertiser, politician, preacher, and even most professors is to get you to "buy their product." 'I hey want you to spend your money, cast your vote, believe their message, or learn their subject. Having completed our survey of the general topic of communication, we can now explore one of the most pervasive and powerful forms of communication—persuasion. Persuasion is any form of communication designed to change the attitudes of the recipient. As you
recall from Chapter 16, attitudes generally include three components: cognitive (thoughts and beliefs), affective (feelings, emotions), and behavioral (a predisposition to act) (Figure 18.5). All three components are important to the depth and intensity of your attitudes.

Elements of Persuasion: Who Said What to Whom—and How?

The ease of changing any or all of these three attitudinal components depends on a number of factors. Researchers have identified four major elements of persuasion: "Who"—the source (who is doing the persuading), "What"—the message (what is being said), "Whom"—the audience (who is being persuaded), and "How"—the channel (the means by which the message is transmitted).

"Who"—The Source in Communication

Think about common television and magazine advertisements. Have you noticed that almost all ads feature extremely attractive models and celebrities? Advertisers recognize that "Who" delivers their product message is all-important—and psychological research agrees. Studies have shown that attractive people are more persuasive because people identify with them and try to imitate them (Lippa, 2002; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997). If handsome basketball star Michael Jordan wears Jockey brand shorts, and beautiful figure skater Dorothy Hamill endorses a particular arthritis medicine, then Jordan's fans will buy the same brand of shorts and arthritic Baby Boomers will try IIamill's recommended medicine.

Attractiveness can be a very effective persuasion technique for relatively trivial matters—our choice of clothing, cars, or shampoo. But what if you're a business owner who wants to convince your financial backers to open new branches in several foreign countries? How can you win them to your point of view? Psychologists have found that when an attitude or decision involves serious consequences or someone's deeply held values and convictions, the credibility of the source becomes more important than superficial traits like attractiveness (Johnson, 2002; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997).

Figure 18.5 Three Major Components of Attitudes. Although not all attitudes contain all 3
components (Olson & Zanna, 1993), understanding these divisions is helpful in your communication and resistance to persuasion.

Attitude: Enron Scandal

Cognitive Component (thoughts, knowledge, beliefs)	Affective Component (feelings, emotions)	Behavioral Component (predisposition to act)
"Corporate greed is rampant in America."	"I hate those greedy CEOs!"	"I'll vote for candidates who want to jail the responsiole CEOs."

The two most important components of credibility are trusworthness and expertise. We seem to trust sources more when they have no apparent association with the product and have little to gain (Wood & Fagly, 1981). And we judge expertise by personal qualifications and associations with prestigious organizations. This is why advertisements that talk about what "doctors recommend" are so successful. Ironically, even when a celebrity says on a commercial, "I'm not a real doctor, but I play one on television," the perception of medical expertise seems to carry over, and the audience will still buy the product.

It the communicator is trustworthy and an expert, we're obviously more likely to lie convinced. But it also is interesting that simply looking a person in the eye and speaking confidently and fast can create the illusion of honesty and credibility.

Don't we usually distrust "fast talkers"? Although we are often warned about the dangers of such people, research has shown that an audiences perceptions of knowledge and trust, and thus their receptiveness to persuasion, are positively influenced by communicators who speak ;it a relatively rapid rate—especially if they're not paying close attention (Apple, Strceter, & Krauss, 1979; Smith & Shatter, 1991). Apparently, when we are partially distracted, we are less able to refute the persuasive argument and become more vulnerable to its appeal (Allyn & Festinger, 1961; Romero et al., 1996). Former President John F. Kennedy is considered one of the most powerful communicators in modern times, and he often approached a speaking rate of over 300 words per minute (the average rate is around 140-150 words per minute).

"What"—The Communication Message

In addition to the attractiveness, credibility, and rate of speech of the source (the Who), the message itself (the "What") also must be persuasive. Some researchers have found that presenting two-sided arguments can be particularly effective—particularly when the audience includes or will be exposed to opposing views (Crowley & Hover. 1994; Jacks & Devine, 2000; Petty' & Wegener, 1998). In this technique, the communicator presents the other side's arguments in a way that looks fair-minded, but
is designed to show the inherent flaws. They also show how their opponent's arguments can be easily refuted. Jwo-sided arguments work because they give the appearance of being even handed, with the added benefit of forewarning the audience of the other side's arguments. In this way, the audience has already heard a possible rebuttal and is less likely to be swayed by the opponent's arguments later on (Jacks & Devine, 2000).

In addition to two-sided arguments, researchers also have found that messages appealing to cognitive processes, such as logic and reason, are very persuasive when the audience is highly motivated and attentive (Verplanken, 1991; Wood, 1982). On the when motivation and attention are minimal, appeals to emotion can be very poweful: Edw.u-ds. 1990; Mullis & Lippa, 1990). Given
that most consumers are minimally attentive when shopping, advertisers relv primarily on emotional appeals.

For example, have you noticed how advertisers try to sell mouthwash, dandruff shampoo or acne medication? They appeal to our tear of social rejection. We're shown sad people who are obviously excluded because of their bad breath, dandruff, or acne Advertisers are not alone in their use of fear induction. Politicians also threaten us with predictions of higher taxes and more crime if we don't vote for them; public service warnings show us horrible photos of diseased lungs and dying people to persuade us to stop smoking; and from an early age, parents and teachers warn us of the dangers of bad grades and an uneducated life. Such emotional appeals apparently work because they arouse strong emotions, which make the recipient less likely to rationally evaluate the message and develop logical counterarguments. This is particularlv true when the fear message is linked to negative consequences that are perceived as immediate, severe, and likely to happen, and when combined with information about ways to avoid the dangers (Devos-Comby & Salovey, 2002; Kline & Mattson, 2000; Mulilis et al., 2001).

The use of emotional appeals can backfire, however. Have you wondered why so many ads using threats of cancer don't seem to stop teenagers from smoking? To most 15 year olds who are inclined to smoke, the idea that if you smoke you might get lung cancer 20 or 30 years in the future is neither immediate nor relevant enough to deter them. The danger is too remote and hypothetical to stop them from enjoying themselves now. More important, the fact that they are doing something that others perceive as risky may enhance the attraction—rather than increase their fear.

"To Whom"—The Audience for the Persuasion

What makes some communicators more persuasive than others? They possess all the characteristics of good communication mentioned earlier, and they're particularly alert to the importance of audience analysis. Imagine yourself as a politician who's trying to convince a large group of potential voters that the government needs to reduce Social Security benefits. After brushing up on the general communication skills mentioned earlier, your first step would be to check your audience. What is their average age, political affiliation, common interest, and motivation for listening? If you were speaking to a group of retired people, they would probably be highly motivated, involved, and attentive; therefore, your best choice of technique would be a highly credible presenter, combined with a discussion of vour opponent's arguments (the two-sided argument), which would "inoculate" them against future opposing arguments. If you were presenting to young college students, however, this issue has little personal relevance to them, so you should pay attention to surface characteristics of your message, such as using attractive models.

"How"—The Channel and Methods for Persuasion

The final component to persuasion, the "How," may be the most important. The delivery of the message can make all the difference, and researchers have identified several important elements, including repeated exposure, classical conditioning, the foot-in-the door, the door-in-the-face, lowballing, and bait-and-s-witch.

Repeated Exposure. Have you ever wondered why the same commercial is often repeated during a television program? Or why politicians plaster signs with just their name all over town? Advertisers and politicians know that the more you see or hear something, the more familiar with it you become. And the more familiar you are with something, the more likely it is that your attitude toward it will become more favorable. Through this repeated exposure, when you shop or vote, you tend to remember their product, feel more comfortable with it, and be more likely buy it—rather than an unfamiliar competitors' brand.

Classical Conditioning. As you recall from Chapter 6, classical conditioning theory also is helpful in explaining- a wide range of phenomena—including persuasion. Advertisers and politicians routinely pair their products with stimuli they know will create a pleasant emotional response in the consumer. To persuade us to buy alcohol, show people having great fun. To make us vote for them, the politician creates photo ops where they're kissing babies, waving flags, and using other stimuli guaranteed to elicit attention and positive responses in the audience.

Can you identify the persuasion technique?

^.—^-,

©Bill Keane, Inc. Reprinted with special permission of King Features Syndicate.

The Foot-in-the-Door Technique. Another persuasion technique is the foot-in-the-door, which involves initially making a small request and then following it with increasingly larger requests. Once someone agrees to a small request, it becomes progressively more difficult to say no to later requests (the seller, in effect, has his or her "foot-in-the-door"). People in commission sales and telemarketing commonly use
this approach. They get their toot-in-the-door by asking for "just a minute of your time" to answer some simple survey questions. From there, the requests steadily increase. By the time you're finally presented with the sales pitch, you've developed the habit, or response set, of saying "yes." Thanks to the foot-in-the door, you are much more likely to buy the product after repeated smaller requests than you would have been at the beginning (Burger & duadagno, 2003; Girandola, 2002). The Door-in-the-Face Technique. The opposite approach to the foot-in-the-door is the door-in-the-face technique. Here, the seller begins with a very large, intrusive request that is likely to be refused. "Would you be willing to donate $500 today?" (the "door-in-the-face"). If it is agreed to, the seller quits. If not, he or she follows it up with a less intrusive request, which is more likely to be agreed to because it seems so much more reasonable than the original request. Researchers have found that people are almost three times as likely to agree to a request when it was preceded by a more intrusive request than when it was not preceded by another request at all (Cialdini et al., 1975; Cialdini & Trost, 1998). Both sellers and buyers frequently use
this strategy when negotiating prices for houses and cars.

How can the foot-in-the-door and the door-in-the-face both be true? Aren't they opposite approaches? The effectiveness of the foot-in-the-door seems to result from subtle cognitive shifts in the recipient. By agreeing to the smaller request, the person apparently comes to see himself or herself as a helper. The shift in self-perception then transfers over and they agree to increasingly larger requests. In contrast, the door-in-the-face works because agreeing to a smaller request reduces the person's guilt at initially saying no or because he or she genuinely want to help (Burger & Guadagno, 2003; Millar, 2002; 'Rising & Dillard, 2000).

Low/bailing. Here, the seller agrees to a deal on what appears to be favorable terms to the buyer. Once the buyer has committed to the deal, however, the seller finds an excuse to revise the terms in a way that is much less favorable to the buyer. The seller knows that since the buyer has already committed to the sale, it will now be difficult to back out. This lowball technique often is used in negotiating the purchase of a car, but car dealers aren't the only offenders. A friend's daughter recently
invited her parents to come for a nice dinner at her new apartment. Once they arrived, she also asked for help with her computer, furniture movement, and proofreading her term paper.

Bait-and-switch. In this method a store advertises a basic model of an item, such as a stereo system, to get you into the store. Once you get there you find they are "out of stock" on the advertised item, but willing to give you a "great deal" on a much more expensive system that has features you may not want or need. Because you have exerted a lot of time and energy shopping and getting to the store, you are more likelv to accept the new deal—even though it is a bait-and-switch.As a critical thinker and active reader, you may be wondering about the ethics of some of these techniques and why we're including them. However, did you also notice that in each case we presented you, the reader, as the recipient—and not the perpetrator? This is because we hope to alert you to the power and dangers of these techniques. Like most professors, we strongly believe in education because it forewarns and forearms us against unethical manipulation. On the other hand, we also believe these same tools can be used ethically and productively. For example, which of these six approaches would you recommend to Chris and Margaret, the couple in our chapter opener who want to make friends with their neighbors? First, it is important to know that in Mediterranean and many other cultures, social activities are generally restricted to the extended family—especially when they are conducted within the home. The neighbors do not dislike Chris and Margaret. they just feel uneasy about making friends with people outside their family.

Given this cultural difference, can you see how they might use repeated exposure, classical conditioning, and the foot-in-the door to slowly build a friendship? They could begin by taking a small present to their neighbor's door, offering to shop for them, and so on. Later they could catch them as they passed their doorway, and ask for advice and a quick taste test of their attempt at cooking a local, Spanish dish. In time, they should be able to build a lasting friendship with one or more of their neighbors.

• Routes to Persuasion: Central or Peripheral?

After reading about all these techniques and elements of persuasion, you may wonder, "Which techniques work best w^ith different people and in different settings?" Fortunately, researchers have asked the same questions. Their studies show that the most important step in effective persuasion is first determining the audience's degree of involvement, motivation, and attention. It an audience is strong on these three elements, thev will thoughtfully consider the issues and become persuaded on the basis of logic and careful analysis of the arguments. This is called the central route to persuasion.

On the other hand. if the audience is uninvolved, unmotivated, or inattentive, they will be influenced by factors irrelevant or extraneous to the product or issue, such is attractiveness of the source or rate of speech. This is known as the peripheral route to persuasion (Aaronson, 2002; Petty & Wegener, 1999; Petty, Wheeler, & Bizer, 2000; Verplanken, 1991). As you can see in Figure 18.6, the central route, being
more thoughtful and less superficial, leads to stronger, more durable attitude change, whereas the reverse is true for the peripheral route.

Advertisers are well aware of the importance of central or peripheral routes to persuasion. The next time you are in a bookstore, compare the ads in a popular magazines, like People, with those in a computer magazine, like PC World. Note how the ads in People focus on cosmetics and fashion promoted by beautiful movie stars or famous. Advertisers know that consumers of cosmetics or fashion will make their decisions on visual and peripheral cues, such as attractiveness of the source. Now compare the computer magazine. Because they know their customers are highly motivated, involved, and attentive, these advertisers take the central route and focus their ads on competitive features of their product and pricing.